Communities of praxis: the Second Life and OLPC components of a mixed-reality primer . |
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Communities of praxis: the SL and OLPC components of a mixed‐reality primer Alexandra Bal, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada. Introduction Second Life1 and the OLPC2 (One Laptop Per Child) laptops belong to a category of technologies referred to as social media. Social media differ from traditional media, such as newspaper, books, televisions and radio, in that they are designed to facilitate users’ participation and mediate human relationships. Over the last few years, social media has afforded unprecedented open access to tools for the building of online communities. As a result, a peer‐to‐peer media culture has emerged which is built on amateur cultural production and informal peer‐to‐peer learning communities (Ito, 2008). These informal modes of cultural and knowledge production are characterized by new forms of engagement with knowledge and by the substitution of institutional experts by peers as valid holders of knowledge. The OLPC computers and Second Life are part of a second generation of social media, where human relationships not only become mediated but also actualized within both physical and virtual spaces. OLPC laptops are part of a mesh network that reinforces the collaborative activities of co‐present peers, while Second Life is a virtual world where peers, who are geographically dispersed, create their own embodied3 virtual social hierarchies and realities. Combining the OLPC and Second Life within a common network, such as OLPCities attempts to do, can lead to the construction of self organizing mixed realities educational communities. Mixed reality refers to the merging of real and virtual worlds to produce new environments and visualizations where physical and digital objects co‐exist and interact in real time (Mixed Reality, 2008). The introduction of mixed reality spaces could change the nature of mediated communication models. This transformation is important to examine since mediated communication is not neutral. It is an implicit representation of ideology that participates in creating societal imaginaries (Moeglin, 2002). While specific ideological framework represents the interests of a specific social class, tacitly carried
A virtual word where humans, as avatars, interact with each other and software agents, in a threedimensional space that uses the metaphor of the real world (Second Life, 2008). 2 The One Laptop per Child program provides children in poor countries with a rugged, low-cost, lowpower, connected laptop with content and software designed for collaborative learning (OLPC, 2008). 3 By embodiment we mean a perceived sense of presence an avatar provides by giving users a representation of a body that is positioned within a three dimensional environment. 1
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within the actions of actors (Weber, 1930), social imaginaries becomes the set of values that governs an entire society (Castoriadis, 1975). According to Castoriadis, social change cannot be understood in terms of any determinate causes or presented as a sequence of events. Change emerges through social imaginaries without determinations. Ideology organizations that have most control over access to messages, or can amplify their voice, can influence the public's perception of societal evolution and obtain a dominant place in history (Castoriadis, 1975). Akin to other new media, social media are implicit places of power struggles where actors are trying to establish control over the types of values being disseminated via mediated communication. While traditional media have evolved within a corporatist framework, where power is held by groups that represent specific interest, social media represents the materialization of the humanist values inherent to the development of the Internet, which was created by researchers who wanted to facilitate the unconstrained exchange of ideas, knowledge, and technological capacities amongst peers (de Joode, Lin, David, 2006). An influence which has lead to the development of peer‐to‐peer constructed narratives. The existence of these narratives can indicate a passage from modern to post‐modern times, leading to the crisis of metaphysical philosophy and of the university institution which in the past relied on meta‐ narratives (Lyotard, 1979). Meta‐narratives are considered the main tool of legitimation of modern society where cultural superstructures (social organizations such as school, churches or media) serve to create ideology, which in turn affects individuals' notions of reality (Althusser, 1971). Current digital informal cultures have reversed this process, by establishing alternate ideological representations, which in time have become the source of new social and economical organizations. The open source movement is an example of such an organization that now influences, and coexists with, the dominant institutional superstructures. Mixed reality could have as great an influence on real life organizations as the first generation of social media are currently having. But what values will these emerging mixed realities promote? Both the OLPC computer and Second Life seem to emulate the fundamental visions of cyberpunk literature. As an interface to interactive learning activities and to human relationships, the OLPC computer is very similar to the illustrated primer, described by Neil Stephenson in his book The Diamond Age or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. In parallel to the OLPC computer, Second Life is a direct implementation of another Stephenson invention, the Metaverse. Are innovators actualizing cyberpunk cyberspace or are they using these symbols as metaphors that carry other values? Page | 2
Theoretical Context Interest in the digital spaces afforded by these technologies is shared by multiple groups who possess objectives other then pedagogical. A look at the investors of the OLPC program renders this fact evident. Sponsors organizations each donating two million dollars include AMD, Brightstar Corporation, eBay, Google, Marvell, News Corporation, SES, Nortel Networks, and Red Hat (Gardiner, 2007). If in discourse the OLPC is an altruistic innovation, its inceptor, Nicholas Negroponte is an entrepreneur who has invested in over 30 start‐up companies including Zagats, Wired, Ambient Devices, Skype and Velti (Negroponte, 2008). Similarly, Philip Rosedale, the creator of second life, is an entrepreneur who “has stated that his goal with Second Life was to demonstrate a viable model for a virtual economy or virtual society. In his own words, "I'm not building a game. I'm building a new country."”(Terdiman, 2006). It is clear that industrial actors use Second Life and the OLPC program as experimental playgrounds. Consequently, the significance of educational innovations cannot be fully appreciated by a sole analysis of their pedagogical scope. By broadening the analysis spectrum to take into consideration socio‐economic contexts, implicit objectives behind educational innovations become more apparent (Combès, 2004). Innovators are influenced by the various cultures inherent to their various networks of relations (personal, social, cultural, professional or technological) which are not intrinsically coherent, and may contain conflicts (Latour, 2005). These various belief systems make technique evolves/moves simultaneously in several directions (Flichy, 1995). By observing social and economic processes inherent to an innovation, it becomes possible to understand the values influencing its evolution and its long term viability. Experimental learning technologies trials, such as the OLPC program, are characteristically signs of a new phase of industrialization within education, which is shaped by various and hybrid industrial forms, corresponding to the influence of diverging industrial logics possessed by actors within this sector (Moeglin, 1998). By industrialization process, G. Tremblay (1998) understands a systematic rationalisation of production practices aimed at enhancing the efficiency of a system, via its technologization, new work tasks division, and the substitution of work to capital. This article explores the impact the potential combination of emerging mixed realities can have on formal education. The driving hypothesis is that innovators hope that the mass adoption of the OLPC system will prepare children to work and live within social‐constructionist mixed realities. The OLPC
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program is a way to condition children to a new economy and social reality by prepare them to enter cyberspace with already forged alternate working habits based on their local needs. Since the future and humans are unpredictable, and OLPC initiatives are not yet widespread in Canada, an observation of existing adult virtual cyberspace, such as Second Life, can help us apprehend some of the ways in which innovators imagine mixed reality space will evolve. To verify this hypothesis, literature review, field interviews with Second Life educators and action research have been utilized to investigate the nature of sociological changes brought about by mixed reality spaces. This article examines three aspects of actors’ standpoint: first, pedagogical logic to understand how pedagogical reforms are envisioned; second, we turned our attention to the type of economic and social communities existing in virtual space, which shows that while some actors utilise informal learning to support commercial activities and others develop more altruistic usage, hybrid forms are emerging which combine the values of the first two; finally, we examine the various industrial frameworks inherent to digital communities in order to apprehend how innovators believe society will developed. 1. From Social media to social worlds: towards a social‐constructionist educational framework Network space can create dynamic polysynchronous learning environments that closely approximate Real Life environments. People communicating polysynchronous not only talk synchronously (in real time) but also create temporal objects such as mail messages, newsgroup messages, as well as objects that can be experienced by others (Sponaas‐Robins and Nolan, 2006). This makes it possible to facilitate the distribution of numerous pedagogical models. The strength of social media as an educational tool is the capacity to move away from passive towards active learning pedagogies. Knowledge is no longer equated with gaining factual information. It becomes the result of an active engagement with both past experiences and prior knowledge (Dewey, 1939 and Vogel, 1993) as well as present experiences taking place within a student's culture and social environments (Vygotsky, 1978). Social media make it possible to eliminate the constraints of the formal classroom by giving access to informal social networks constituted of peers distributed across the network, who engage with each other because of their shared personal interests. 1.1. Learning within Informal Communities of Interest
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These informal social networks facilitate the construction of informal learning communities that can develop into transformative learning environments within which one learns by questioning assumptions, beliefs and values, considering multiple points of view (Mezirow, 2000), and by entering in dialog with others. Living libraries, currently growing worldwide, are an example of such transformative learning environments developed in non technological institutional contexts, where readers borrow people instead of books. Authentic lived experiences become the main engagement processes of these libraries (Abergel, 2008), adding another dimension to experiential informal learning which positions informal dialog and action at the core of learning (Friere, 1973). Social media serve as aggregators of peers’ interests that enhance the reach of lived experiences by rendering them accessible at different locations and times along with giving access to an international peer community geographically dispersed. By broadening the social context of learners, social media affords a version of experiential learning that becomes about experiencing our humanity, people experiencing other human beings (Wesch, 2008). Engagement comes from the empathy we feel while listening to the authentic narratives of other human beings. 1.2. Learning within Communities of Practice Social media also make it possible to couple lived experiences to action based learning, a principle essential to constructionist educational frameworks where exploration and discovery through experimentation replace information as key learning resources (Papert, 1992). Since learning by doing joins lived experiences as key engagement process, communities of interest can become communities of practice within which people co‐create meaning, knowledge and culture via performances, interactions and the co‐production of mediated artefacts. Learning within Sociological Constructs The OLPC computer and Second Life represent a new phase of evolution of social media which can complement social‐constructivist with social‐constructionists educational models. While social‐ constructivism focuses on knowledge as a psychological construct, meaning that learning happens within an individual, social constructionism posits it happens within a sociological construct (Restivo and Croissant, 2008). Knowledge is a social construct, derived and maintained from negotiations taking place through social interactions (Berger and Luckmann, 1966) and learning can become the results of the self‐organizing thoughts of digital communities. Page | 5
The coexistence of these various models typifies an evolution of thinking about knowledge which moves from being a personal psychological construct to a social one. A blurring between personal and social boundaries is taking place. This softening of the lines between private and public spheres manifests itself in social and economy models that coexist within network space. 2. Digital space as a point of convergence between opposite virtual economy and social configurations Hybrid social and economical models are emerging within network space that recombine the values of peer‐to‐peer and institutional cultures within both liberal and humanist contexts. Originally, Peer‐to‐ peer cultures claim to build egalitarian decentralized social networks and ascertain that individuals are responsible for both social and economic progress. In contrast, within institutional cultures, the dominant social group activities are source of growth. Regardless of their difference, they all incorporate informal social networks within their practices. 2.1. Social networks as marketing tools Some institutional actors understand the network to be a free market that supports the distribution of products and services. Within the framework of a free market society, which promotes profit as a universal value, education must improve the competitive capacities of learners. Education corresponds to "the financial investment of an individual aiming to improve his/her physical and intellectual capacities and thus his/her profitability" (Delamotte, 1998). Interested in their own advancement, individuals invest in their education according to how specific programs enhance their human or cultural capital. In other words, improve professional competences favourable to the economic development, in accordance with the objectives of the leading forces (Becker, 1993). Degrees hold symbolic values which allow individuals to demonstrate their membership to a particular social professional class. Education is an economic resource, a product marketed at a price fixed by the market. While this model transposes traditional economic and social hierarchies and markets to the network, it also incorporates social networks as marketing tools. Communities of interests within which individuals exchange personal opinions about products and services, are used to build the professional reputation of products and services since social networks influence representation, taste, knowledge and behaviours (Gensollen, 2004). Page | 6
Institutions gather within consortia which allow them to have a network collective identity and to share the cost of having a network presence. But being based within a competition framework, economic frontiers remain closed and no sharing or collaboration can take place in regards to the production of knowledge as copyright remains a strong economical principle. In opposition to this first model, other groups have developed processes derived from a network economy where value is added through social network. Although social networks are still marketing tools, they also facilitate the use of informal learning within a knowledge economy built upon a "system of production, distribution, and consumption of information goods characterized by decentralized individual action carried out through wildly distributed, nonmarket means that do not depend on market strategies" (Benkler, 2006). In this instance, the market is no longer based on the sale of products but on the intellectual or creative capacity of individuals. Social networks are tools of a reputation economy. Sharing and peer knowledge production does not provide direct income to its producers. Nevertheless, it is indispensable to the producer’s economical livelihood. It allows for the individual to grow and participate to the building of his‐her social reputation in an economy where expertise is no longer sectioned only by a degree, it also becomes the result of tangible, lived experiences that are demonstrated within applications and validated by peers’ opinions. Social media permits individuals to expend their social network and learn with and from others. But the competitive nature of this economy model, where knowledge still satisfies existing market needs, forbids the co‐production of knowledge. This is not the case for other actors who are interested in the development of educational forms that enrich the social contract between individuals. Knowledge is a social good shared by all. Peers are agents of social change who participate to the development of new imaginaries by creating knowledge and cultural discourse. Following a humanist mandate, the economy is based on knowledge sharing and co‐production which allow to transform society and to guide its evolution via citizens’ participation. 2.2. Social network as Informal Learning Communities Two knowledge sharing and co‐production models coexist. In the first case, the social network becomes a collective intelligence (Levy, 1995) and in the second a connective intelligence (deKerkove, 1998). In both cases, knowledge is distributed amongst the members of the social network but these two models differ in how we are to perceive the individual in a world where the collaborative/collective is Page | 7
increasingly valued. Collective intelligence places the collective first, whereas connective intelligence places the individual node first (Siemens, 2008). Connective intelligence permits to retain ourselves and our ideas in our collaboration with others, while collective intelligence results in an over‐writing of individual identity. For Siemens, one form must dominate the other. But within a hybrid sociological system, they represent the action processes of different groups who have different economic and social purposes. Collective intelligence is valuable to different social scenarios where the power of the group is needed to advance social or economic objectives. Two distinct types of collectives can be noticed. A first collective concerns professionals who are tied to institutions, while the second is tied to individuals isolated within their geographical contexts. Professional collectives A first model demarks a softening of the institutional frontiers. In this case, the constant renewal of institutional knowledge comes from its employees who need to co‐learn with their professional peers. Professionals of various organizations join an informal learning collective that obeys the tacit and explicit economic and social rules and structures of their professional culture (Noubel, 2004). The Odyssey4 collective is an example of such a community in Second Life which has been built to support new forms of collaboration amongst artists. These digital collectives are financed by institutions, which allows for collaboration and eliminates risks of financial competition between innovators. In some cases, the financing is indirect, via a full time salary. Educators, for example, have a public profession which grants them the financial freedom necessary to be able to partake in knowledge sharing activities. In other cases, financing is more direct, in the form of sponsoring that covers production costs. Institutions engage in such financing because it allows them to observe social formation within digital space without having to invest heavily in infrastructure or because they want to establish their reputation as supporters of these spaces to create brand awareness to their potential clients. These financing strategies allow these communities to function according to a gift economy that emphasizes social or intangible rewards for solidarity and generosity, a form of reciprocal altruism (Godbout, 2000). They become forms of professional collective intelligence where each member shares a 4 http://slurl.com/secondlife/Odyssey/201/192/29 Page | 8
unique expertise and knowledge to benefit all members of the group. Since financial survival is not at stake, participants can share knowledge freely with each other since informal co‐production of knowledge is necessary for the growth of the profession. Independent Collectives Other communities exist where hierarchical social structures are replaced with alliances and self‐ governed informal learning communities. These groupings form self‐regulated communities around personal economic, cultural, educational or other interest. Digital space facilitates the collaborative and co‐learning activities between individuals who do not have a pre‐existent personal or professional relationship in the physical world. Members of these collectives share socio‐cultural interests. Often, members are in minority within their local professional or social context and use the network to forge relationships with like‐minded individuals. Virtual space becomes a place where they meet, learn from each other and develop a common voice, which they can use to promote non dominant values and ideas back in the real world. The Netroot5 collective is an example of such a self‐organizing collective where geographically dispersed individuals use social media to teach each other how to be a peaceful political activist in their local settings. In this case, collective intelligence serves to hones the power of groups by creating virtual crowds that can be mobilized. Individuals become members of a collective intelligence which produces a mass alternative voice to the institutional ones promoted by mass media and puts pressures on the institutional world. In Canada, the Fair Copyright for Canada Facebook group became cyber protesters and defeated the passing of a new copyright act. As Michael Geist described: “Not only had tools like Facebook had an immediate effect on the government's legislative agenda, but the community that developed around the group also led to a "crowdsourcing" of knowledge” (Geist, 2007). Connective Intelligence In parallel to these social organizations, other structures allow for Individuals to maintain their own identity while their ideas which are informed and influenced by collective learning. Connective intelligence responds to the economic needs of individuals who need to remain viable by preserving their unique identity in order to be able to work within a reputation economy. Here again, formal organizational hierarchies are replaced with self‐governed social networks and informal learning
5 http://slurl.com/secondlife/Yearly%20Kos%20Convention%204/229/53/24
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communities. These communities allow individuals to progress in their knowledge while developing social networks with other independent workers who possess complementary working competences. Besides their marketing role, social networks create opportunities to build relationships for future contractual work. The virtual environment must satisfy the communication needs of individuals who partake both in an interdependent economy between individuals and a neo‐liberal economy by the sale of their expertise as services to institutions. This compassionate Entrepreneur economic model (Schumpeter, 1942) hones social networks and operates according to the rules of a peered produced reputation economy. Compassionate Entrepreneurs belong to informal learning communities where individuals informally collaborate to learn while remaining in economic competition within the framework of their professional production. The various economy models we just saw reinforce Herve Fisher belief that virtual societies or cyber societies do not escape from sociological weight and from political and commercial gravity (Fisher, 2006, our translation). Indeed, part of the social structures developed mirror the physical world. However, as the users of these spaces start to include/understand their potentials, they are developing new configurations. 2.3. Hybrid logic: digital space as both a market and public sphere Peer to peer culture eliminates the distinction between makers and participants, potentially blurring the boundary between teacher‐student relationships, and the boundary between consumers and producers (Mann, 2006). Digital space becomes both a market place and a public sphere. As a result, hybrid approaches have emerged that combine these two opposites value systems and create new combinations. Some of these virtual social organizations have now levied the power of informal communities to create official and legal biding social structures that legitimize and protect the values they cherish. Creative commons is an example of such structures which has emerged to protect the right to share information and content. Industrial enterprises have also derived substantial value from user‐created content. Businesses are honing upon this process and softening the boundaries between their institutions and the public sphere. Users are invited to participate in the economy as an equal, co‐creating value with peers and companies to meet their personal needs (Tapscott and Williams, 2006). Page | 10
Social activists take advantage of the fact that reputation influences market shares by becoming political consumers who convert the apolitical marketplace into a site of contestation at the intersection of globalization and individualization (Micheletti, 2003). They use their individual buying power and their social networks to put pressure on institutions and influence their actions. Similarly to the evolution of pedagogical models, socio‐economy models are developing towards defining collectives as self‐organizing entities that possess behaviours and regulations. Digital space houses ‘smart mobs’, technology‐mediated forms of self‐structuring social organization that are virtual intelligent emergent behaviours(Rheingold, 2002). The network is used by people to connect to information and others, and allow social coordination amongst peers. Social media blur the boundaries between public, private and professional spaces and reverse the institutional‐individual relationship. For many researchers, this phenomenon is the source of an eminent cultural revolution within our social and cultural institutions (Gauntlett, 2007). Such discourse does not take into account that change within cultural institutions is an evolutionary process based on the hybridization of older and emerging ideas (Tremblay, 1998; Moeglin, 2002) as well as the convergence of multiple socio‐technical agendas (Latour, 2005) both internal and external to institutions. What is clear is that the beginning of a convergence between the values of peer‐to‐peer and corporate ideologies is underway. How will such a shift of boundary, between personal and professional influence and reshape education’s industrial framework? 3. Digital space as a tool of reindustrialization of Education Education is understood to be an important dissemination tool which promotes specific values, cultures and work habits to the upcoming members of society (Bal, 2005). Actors, involved in innovation, are often animated by ideologies which differ from the institutionally dominant one, and want to test and implement different social reproduction objectives hoping to alter society’s evolution and to reindustrialize formal education. The notion of industrialization in education is not recent. In North America, as early as 1876, an industrialization process becomes intertwined with a process of technologization of education. While retracing the evolution of the American education model, G. Berger notices that this model corresponds to industrial notions of efficiency and productivity and that technologization participates to the transformation of the education system into a production system (Berger, 1982). For G. Berger, North
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American universities educational mandates are amalgamated with industries since the beginning of the 20th century. As we saw, networks and social media accommodate multiple pedagogical models. According to Boltanski and Chiappello (2001), different educational models correspond to particular capitalist industrial frameworks. The second phase of liberal capitalism of the 1950s needs the individual to work within the hierarchical, centralized and authoritarian operations of the Taylorian firm. Education serves to condition learners to institutional social hierarchies and to become passive workers who follow established and standardized procedures. The third phase of capitalist development, that of the 1970s, grants co‐operation, and the reciprocity in communication between individuals, paramount importance since it supports social integration in an “active” company where the economy is founded on innovation. The large hierarchical companies of the 1950s are transformed (at least to some extent and ideally) into collective spaces where innovating workmen share their knowledge to make the institution progress. The firm needs these “innovators” to think and act by themselves. Thus the use of active learning forms which prepare the individual to play his/her part in the innovating firm. The network economy of the 1990s builds on globally distributed infrastructures where value is created and shared by members of a network instead of by individual companies (Kelley, 1998). This neo‐ industrial phase is founded on the principles of a self‐service industrial model (Moeglin, 2004). Since Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) delocalize and de‐temporalize the worker/customer relationship, social networks replace the institution, mechanism traditional of control on the workforce. Industrial institutions need the development of an autonomous “hyper” individual who operates according to rules' of the “coopetition”, an amalgam of the processes of co‐operation and reciprocity to processes of competition based on the hierarchy and control (Brandenburger and Nalebuff, 1997). Individuals have to internalize neo‐liberal values so as not to create conflict between their autonomy of action and thought and the dominant ideology. This hyper‐individualization and fragmentation of institutions is leading towards the acceptance of peer‐ to‐peer culture within institutions. Despite the fact that this culture marks a different type of capitalist framework that replaces institution with self‐organizing social structures. Today, technological innovation is advancing too rapidly, and is too multifaceted, for a single human to keep track or to adapt to these changes alone. Individuals use social networks need to join communities of interest where both personal and professional interests merge. Innovators are becoming involved within collective and Page | 12
connective communities of practices which allow them to acquire the knowledge required to break away from traditional standards designs. This breaking away from standards imply a different relationship to education, formal education remains useful to facilitate social acculturation but socio‐ constructionist models that incorporate informal personal learning communities within educational processes need to be introduced. Communities have emerged that favour a common‐based peer production model over institutional production. Commons‐based peer production describes collaborative efforts, such as free and open source software and Wikipedia which are focused on sharing of information (Benkler, 2006). Conclusion: Mixed Reality Primers It is in this context that we must examine the role of the OLPC program. The widespread adoption of a specific mediated communication environment, such as the OLPC laptop, can lead to the development of alternate social and economic structures that can influence the evolution of capitalism by acculturating children to specific capitalist values. The OLPC program promotes social‐constructionist structures that operate in direct opposition to the essentialist dominant institutional models of learning. Such structures can lead to the creation of a delocalized and self‐organizing public spheres where social agents are able to act, influence and change the course of history (Haber, 2001) and offer representations of identity, ideology and community that differ from the mass media dominant ones. By short‐circuiting the traditional authorities of diffusion of culture, users of the OLPC can potentially change the nature of economic and political territories. Such a reformulation of boundaries can eliminate institutional monopoly over the definition of societal imaginaries. Introducing the OLPC into poor countries does not seem to only be for altruistic reasons. Western world infrastructures are controlled by bureaucratic processes developed over 100 years ago which stops innovation from being quickly adopted. Countries without such constrains, will develop new economic and social models which, as they become economic power themselves, will influence the western world and force it to adapt. The adoption of mixed reality frameworks could reinforce such a process since like social media, they can allow for the development of alternate local social and economy structures somewhat unconstrained freed by the dominant cultural and social barriers to change existing from within dominant cultural institutions. The open source movement has demonstrated that in time, the adoption of such processes by a larger public can influence institutional evolution. The control over distribution of mediated artifact is important because mediated cultural and educational artifacts, such as books, films or architectures become the only remaining historical records Page | 13
of a time. Social media is allowing for alternate peer‐to‐peer values normally only preserved in oral traditions and cultures to become long lasting historical records. Currently, a “We generation” is budding, a peer to peer youth whose understanding of identity is mainly build via their community (Olsen, 2007). By the time the ‘We generation’ enters adulthood, mixed reality spaces will most likely have become globalized capitalist environment in the forms of “data commons” that can alter the way our democracy functions by becoming places where individuals express their social and political values as much through consumption choices as they do through voting (Cuff, Hansen and Kang, 2008) both within physical and virtual worlds. The OLPC and Second Life have been designed to be able to adapt to their environment, rendering them able to evolve in accordance to local needs and cultures. This could suggest that they have been designed as platforms that support a web economy based on a swarm intelligence: ‘an alternative way of designing “intelligent” systems in which autonomy, emergence, and distributedness replace control, preprogramming, and centralization” (Bonabeau, 2003). Within the humanist framework that seems to
animate the OLPC program, such an evolution could lead to the development of deinstitutionalized commerce and social structures and of self‐organizing communities who use political consumerism to influence corporations, international organizations, and general labour and production practices (Stolle et al., 2005).
How far will the reach of this peer‐to‐peer culture infiltrate our current institutions? Are innovators attempting to facilitate the creation of virtual societies that resemble the autonomous societies Cornelius Castoriadis envisioned? Self‐governing societies within which citizens explicitly participate to the development of new imaginaries (Castoriadis, 1987). It is hard to predict since humans are unpredictable and the future depends on how digital youth culture evolves. In the long term can the voice of public peer to peer crowds and individual consumerists overpower institutional dominance? Current social events would suggest that network space has already become a place of peer‐to‐peer action that has real influences social reality. Bibliography Althusser, L. (1971). Ideology and ideological state apparatuses. In Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays. London: New Left Books. Autier, M., & Lévy, P. (1992). Les arbres de connaissances. Paris : Découverte.
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